![]() ![]() ![]() Worthwhile in mainstream science, or, by extreme Species becomes part of zoology, and not cryptozoology.įields that pursue anomalous phenomena are often seen as not being Of course, asĬryptozoologist Loren Coleman notes, every Theīe to find a single example of a cryptid toĭisprove the statement 'cryptids do not exist'. Would be falsified by the discovery of just one remaining dinosaur. For example, the statement 'dinosaurs are extinct' The single black swan, any theory is shown to be falsified by a verified Statement 'all swans are white' is falsified by the counterexample of Universal statement U implies an observation O:Īn observation conflicting with O, however, is made:Ī statement is only complete insofar as it accurately describes The falsification of statements occurs through modus True it would be falsified by the counterexample of the single black Single black swan, then the statement all swans are white would not be For, if in testing many swans, the researcher finds a It may be impossible to observe all the swans in the world toĮven so, the statement all swans are white is testable by beingįalsifiable. From this, one may wish to infer that: All swans are Is something which is a swan and which is not white', hence 'all swansĪre white' is false, because that is the same as 'there is nothing Swan' implies 'there is a non-white swan' which in turn implies 'there The universal statement 'all swans are white' is false - in logic this The singular existential observation of a black swan serves to show that 3 Popper noticed that although a singularĮxistential statement such as 'there is a white swan' cannot be used toĪffirm a universal statement, it can be used to show that one is false: He proposed falsification as a solution to the problem of Popper held that science could not be grounded on such an invalid Yet some philosophers of science claim that science is based on such an That there may be a non-white swan that has somehow avoided observation. Method is clearly deductively invalid since it is always possible That one can move from 'this is a white swan', 'that is a white swan',Īnd so on, to a universal statement such as 'all swans are white'. Of singular existential statements to a universal statement. Inductivist methodology supposed that one can somehow move from a series Statement from any number of existential statements? Move from observations to laws? How can one validly infer a universal Perhaps the most difficult question in the They are usually parsed in the form:įor all x, if x is a swan, then x is white.īe of the second type. LogiciansĬall these statements universal. Instances of something, for example 'all swans are white'. The second type of statement of interest to scientists categorizes all There is an x which is a swan, and x is white. Statements singular existential statements since they assert theĮxistence of some particular thing. Observations, such as 'this is a white swan'. 2 Popper noticed that two types of statementsĪre of particular value to scientists. In work beginning in the 1930s, noted philosopher Karl Popper gaveįalsifiability a renewed emphasis as a criterion of empirical statements 1 Anomalous phenomena as falsification of a theory (incorrectly) associated with pseudoscience. Scientific study of the field is called anomalistics, though it has been Sometimes the anomalous phenomena are expected, but the reason for theirĭeviation is unclear (See section on anomalies in science). We provide insights on how managing these special points in the complex frequency plane provides a powerful approach to tailor unusual scattering regimes.Anomalous phenomena are observed events which deviate from what isĮxpected (anomalies) according to existing rules or scientific theory. In this paper, we establish a unified description of such exotic scattering phenomena and show that the origin of all these effects can be traced back to the properties of poles and zeros of the underlying scattering matrix. Examples include bound states in the continuum, exceptional points in PT-symmetrical non-Hermitian systems, coherent perfect absorption, virtual perfect absorption, nontrivial lasing, non-radiating sources, and others. Recently, a broad spectrum of exceptional scattering phenomena attainable in suitably engineered structures has been predicted and demonstrated. ![]() Hence, deep insight into the basics of scattering theory and understanding the peculiar features of electromagnetic scattering is necessary for the correct interpretation of experimental data and an understanding of the underlying physics. ![]() Scattering of electromagnetic waves lies at the heart of most experimental techniques over nearly the entire electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from radio waves to optics and X-rays. ![]()
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